For further information about the Barbary macaques and the contents of this website,

contact:	Dr. John Cortes	gonhs@gibnet.gi
	Prof. Keith Hodges	khodges@gwdg.de
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		GreenMediaNet
Content	Ulrike Möhle
	Keith Hodges
Photographs	Ralf Armbrecht	Lara Modolo
	Keith Hodges	Ulrike Möhle
	Rolf Kümmerli

Although not strictly speaking correct, the Barbary macaque is traditionally called an ape, since it resembles one in having almost no tail. Barbary macaques (scientific name, Macaca sylvanus) are Old World primates belonging to the family Cercopithecidae. In addition to the Barbary and other macaques, this family also comprises baboons, guenons and langurs. The members of this family share several skeletal features, such as a narrow nose, hindlimbs longer than the forelimbs, and a the tail (when present) that is not prehensile. Due to other anatomical features mainly related to dietary adaptations, this family is divided into two subfamilies. The macaques belong to the subfamily called Cercopithecinae. One of the characteristic features of this subfamily is the presence of cheek pouches in which the animals store food.

Today at least 20 different macaque species are known and the macaque genus is characterised by its diversity. One example is the tail: while in the Barbary macaque, the tail is almost not existent, the long-tailed macaque from Indonesia has a tail longer than its body. Between these extremes, all intermediate stages can be found. They have also developed diverse ecological adaptations. Macaques are found in more climates and habitats than any other primate except humans. The geographical distribution ranges from as far east and north as Japan to as far west as Morocco. But the Barbary macaque is the only one to occur in Africa; all other macaques are found in Asia. Furthermore, the Barbary macaques on Gibraltar are the only free-ranging monkeys in Europe.

Social life

Barbary macaques live in societies that exhibit strong associations between individuals. Bonds form between females, juveniles, adolescent males, and even adult males. Unlike other macaque species, Barbary macaques form groups which can contain large numbers of adult males (up to ten) and females as well as members of all age classes. On average a group consists of 30 animals with a more or less balanced adult sex ratio. As in other macaque species, females typically remain in their natal group and migration to other neighbouring groups is limited to males.
The females in a group are organised in matrilines, a kind of subgroup consisting of a mother and her female offspring. The dominance relationships among the different matrilines are usually clear and very stable.

Adult males are dominant to all females in a group. In contrast to other macaque species, there is little between-male aggression. Interestingly, males often associate with infants immediately after birth, taking them when only a few hours old to groom and carry around. A male will often run to a second male exhibiting an infant and both males will show a sequence of teeth chattering and lip smacking during which time the infant is manipulated extensively. It has been suggested that this behaviour, which is unique to this species, regulates and stabilises the social relationships among males. But it might also represent a special care-taking relationship between particular animals.

Reproduction

Reproduction in Barbary macaques is highly seasonal with a discrete mating season between October and February. In the wild most births occur between April and May, although on Gibraltar, the birth season is slightly later. The duration of pregnancy is about 165 days with females usually giving birth to singletons. Females are sexually mature at an age of 4 years and can give birth every year. Males reach sexual maturity at an age of 5 years. Full body size is reached at an age of 6 in females and between 8 to 9 years in males.

Macaque mating systems can generally be described as promiscuous. In the Barbary macaque, this is particularly so, in that all adult females usually mate with several males during the fertile phase, irrespective of their rank or social status. During the breeding season females exhibit hormone dependent changes in coloration and swelling of the sex skin surrounding their perineum. At its maximum, this anogenital swelling is large and prominent and highly attractive to males. Since these so-called secondary sex characteristics show cyclical changes in size and appearance, they might help to advertise the fertile phase of the female.

Distribution

In the wild
The few remaining isolated populations of Barbary macaques are found in the mountainous regions of North Africa. Currently, the largest population is in the Middle Atlas in Morocco, with smaller populations being found in the High Atlas and Rif (Morocco) and Chiffa, Grande and Petite Kabylie in Algeria. The total number of Barbary macaques in the wild is estimated to be about 15000.

In captivity
Small groups of Barbary macaques are held in several zoos in Europe and North America. In addition, there are a number of larger groups maintained in semi-free enclosures in Europe, principally in Germany (Salem, Kintzheim) and France (Rocamadour, Beauval). In total, the captive population is probably somewhat in excess of 1400.

Habitat

Barbary macaques together with Japanese macaques are the only monkeys to be found in a temperate environment. The natural habitat in North Africa consists of mixed cedar and holm oak or cork oak forest up to 1600-2160m. Thus, Barbary macaques are well adapted to high temperatures in summer and frost and snow in winter.
It is not surprising therefore, that Barbary macaques are food generalists and have a broad diet. Depending on the season, the macaques utilise a wide range of food, including bark and needles of cedar trees during food shortage in winter, whereas in summer mushrooms, animal prey, fruits, roots and seeds comprise the bulk of their diet.